The Oriental White-eyes, Zosterops palpebrosus, are a small passerine bird in the white-eye family.
It is a resident breeder in open woodland in tropical Asia, east of India to China and Indonesia.
They forage in small groups, feeding on nectar and small insects. They are easily identified by the distinctive white eye-ring and overall yellowish upperparts.
Several populations of this widespread species are named subspecies, and some have distinctive variations in the extent and shades of yellow in their plumage.
Description
The Oriental White-eye bird is small (about 8–9 cm long) with yellowish olive upper parts, a white eye ring, a yellow throat and vent. The belly is whitish grey but may have yellow in some subspecies. The sexes look similar. The species is widespread and is part of a superspecies complex that includes the Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonicus), the Lowland White-eye (Zosterops meyeni) and possibly others. The taxonomy of the group is still unclear, with some island populations being distinctive while some subspecies are not well supported. The population from Flores, Indonesia, for instance, is found closer to the Pale White-eye. The family itself is now questioned since they are nested along with the Stachyris babblers.
About eleven subspecies are well recognised. These include the nominate form (type locality Bengal, India), which is found from Oman and Arabia, Afghanistan, northern India and extends into China and northern Myanmar.
The population in the Western Ghats and hills of southern India is placed in nilgiriensi,s while salimalii of the Eastern Ghats hills (Shevaroy, Chitteri, Seshachalam, Nallamalai) is sometimes subsumed into the nominate race.
The population of the plains of India, the Laccadives and Sri Lanka are sometimes placed in egregius (= egregia) but is restricted by other works to the population in Sri Lanka.
The populations in southern Myanmar, Thailand and Laos are placed in siamensis. The Nicobar Islands form is nicobaricus and is sometimes also used for the population on the Andaman Islands, which are, however, distinctive and a distinct unnamed population.
The Oriental White-eyes populations from southern Thailand to western Cambodia are placed in williamsoni. Other Southeast Asian island forms include auriventer (=aureiventer), buxtoni, melanurus and unicus.
Race occidentis (now often subsumed into the nominate race) of the Western Himalayas has the upper side dark green, and the flanks are tinged in brown. The form salimalii has a shorter bill and is brighter yellow-green above. Some authors consider the nominate race to be restricted to Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam and Yunnan and consider the peninsular race as occidentis (or amabilis if the form from Kathiawar described by Koelz is considered valid.
In Sri Lanka, race egregia is smaller and has a brighter back and throat than the endemic Sri Lanka White-eye, Zosterops ceylonensis found in the central hills.
The English and scientific names refer to the conspicuous ring of white feathers around the eyes, zosterops being Greek for ‘girdle-eye’.
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Behaviour and ecology
These  Oriental White-eyes are sociable, forming flocks which only separate on the approach of the breeding season. They are highly arboreal and only rarely descend to the ground. The breeding season is February to September, but April is the peak breeding season, and the compact cup nest is placed like a hammock on the fork of a branch. The nest is made of cobwebs, lichens and plant fibre. The nest is built in about 4 days, and the two pale blue eggs are laid within a couple of days of each other. The eggs hatch in about 10 days. Both sexes take care of brooding the chicks, which fledge in about 10 days. Though mainly insectivorous, the Oriental White-eye will also eat nectar and fruits of various kinds. According to eBird, this species is well documented.
They call frequently as they forage, and the usual contact call is a soft nasal cheer. They pollinate flowers when they visit them for flower insects (such as thrips) and possibly nectar (questioned) that form their diet. The forehead is sometimes colored by pollen, leading to mistaken identifications. They have been observed bathing in dew accumulated on leaves. According to BirdLife International, this species is well documented.
When nesting, they may mob palm squirrels, but being small birds, they are usually on the defensive. Their predators include bats (esp. Greater False Vampire Bat, Megaderma lyra) and birds such as the White-throated Kingfisher. Endoparasitic Haemosporidia of the genus Haemoproteus and Dorisa have been isolated from the species, although these rarely cause death.
Like some other white-eyes, they sometimes steal nest material from the nests of other birds. Cases of interspecific feeding have been noted with white-eyes feeding the chicks of a Paradise Flycatcher.
Although not strong fliers, they are capable of dispersing in winds and storms to new areas, including offshore islands. A feral population of this species established itself in California during the 1980s, requiring their capture and destruction. They were captured by luring them using call playback and live decoys into mist nets.
Distribution and habitat
The species is found in a wide range of habitats from scrub to moist forest. They sometimes occur in mangrove areas, such as in the Karachi area. And on islands, they may lead a more insectivorous life. They are somewhat rare, only in the drier desert regions of western India.
A feral population was detected in San Diego, California, in the 1980s and subsequently eradicated.
Habitat
Oriental White-eye is an adaptable bird that thrives in many habitats. The Oriental White-eye is found in humid forests, woodland scrublands, gardens and mangroves, especially along coastal regions such as those near Karachi. They can adapt well to both natural and man-made environments. This makes them a common sight in urban parks and green areas. In forested and island habitats, they may adopt a different lifestyle. They might be more inclined to eat insects due to the limited availability of fruit.
In the deserts of western India, they are rarer. Oriental White-eyes are surprisingly resilient and flexible in their habitat choices, despite their small size. This has allowed them to maintain a wide native range throughout South and Southeast Asia. They are a favourite among birdwatchers, nature lovers and gardeners in South and Southeast Asia.
Distribution
Oriental White-eyes are widely distributed throughout the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia and East Asia. The Oriental White-eye is found in a wide range of countries, including India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. It also extends into southern China and Indonesia. The diet and behaviour of islanders can vary depending on local food and environment.
This species, although not native to Australia or America, has proven to be able to spread beyond its normal range. In the 1980s, a feral population appeared in San Diego, California. It was likely introduced by the pet trade or accidentally escaped. The population was eradicated later to avoid ecological disruption. They can travel by strong winds and storms, which is how they end up in new territory. This makes them an interesting species when discussing bird migration or invasive risks.
Breeding
Oriental white-eyes are active and cooperative breeders. Their breeding season typically runs from February through September, with the peak occurring in April. The nests are made of plant fibres and lichens. They are usually suspended from the fork of an elongated branch. Nest construction usually takes four days and includes two pale-blue eggs. Both males and females share the responsibility of incubating and feeding the eggs. Chicks hatch in around 10 days, and they fledge within another 10 days.
These birds are surprisingly brave during breeding season, despite their size. It has been observed that they mob much larger animals, such as palm squirrels, to defend their nests. However, they remain on the defensive. Natural predators are bats such as Megaderma Lyra and birds like the White-throated kingfisher. Interestingly, Oriental White-eyes are also known to occasionally steal nesting material from other birds and, in rare cases, even feed the chicks of other species–such as the Paradise Flycatcher–demonstrating unusual interspecies behaviour. The Oriental White-eyes can host parasites such as Haemoproteus or Dorisa. However, these do not usually pose a threat to the birds’ health.
